Theme 1 - Methods of internationalization

A market entry strategy is the planned method of delivering goods or services to a new target market and distributing them there. ( Wikipedia )

Some of the most common market entry strategies are:

directly exporting products
indirect exporting using a middleman, and
producing products in the target market. ( Wikipedia )

But also:

Licensing
Franchising
Greenfield project
Joint ventures
Wholly owned subsidiaries
Alliances
Turnkey project ( Wikipedia )

To export means shipping the goods and services out of the port of a country. The seller of such goods and services is referred to as an "exporter" who is based in the country of export whereas the overseas based buyer is referred to as an "importer". In International Trade, "exports" refers to selling goods and services produced in the home country to other markets. ( Wikipedia )

Global marketing is marketing on a worldwide scale reconciling or taking commercial advantage of global operational differences, similarities and opportunities in order to meet global objectives". ( Wikipedia )

Export entry modes

Export modes - Indirect exporting vs. direct exporting

Q: What kind of intermediaries can help the company to export? How?

Export Agents
Export Management Companies
Export Trading Companies
Export Merchants
Association with Another Exporter

Q: What is the main difference between agent and distributor?

An agent is someone who acts on your behalf. Although an agent may arrange a sale, the sale contract will be between you and the customer. An agent may be either an employee or self-employed.
A distributor is a customer of yours. The distributor then sells the product on to the distributor’s own customers.

Requirements for internationalization

Internationalization has been viewed as a process of increasing involvement of enterprises in international markets. ( Wikipedia )

Common types of intellectual property rights include

patents
copyright
industrial design rights
trademarks
trade dress and
in some jurisdictions trade secrets. ( Wikipedia )

Licensing and franchising

The verb license or grant license means to give permission. The noun license refers to that permission as well as to the document recording that permission. ( Wikipedia )

Franchising is the practice of using another firm's successful business model. The word 'franchise' is of Anglo-French derivation - from franc - meaning free, and is used both as a noun and as a (transitive) verb.

For the franchisor, the franchise is an alternative to building 'chain stores' to distribute goods that avoids the investments and liability of a chain. The franchisor's success depends on the success of the franchisees. The franchisee is said to have a greater incentive than a direct employee because he or she has a direct stake in the business. ( Wikipedia )

Franchising can be described as co-operation between two legally and financially independent firms where one firm, the franchisee, pays the other firm, the franchisor, for the right to sell the franchisor’s product and/or right to use its trademarks and business format in a given location for a specific period of time. Franchising is an ongoing business relation-ship between the franchisee and the franchisor. ( Blair and Lafontaine (2011, 3-4) )

How does the licensor make money? How does the licensee make money?

Foreign direct investment

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a direct investment into production or business in a country by an individual or company of another country, either by buying a company in the target country or by expanding operations of an existing business in that country. Foreign direct investment is in contrast to portfolio investment which is a passive investment in the securities of another country such as stocks and bonds. ( Wikipedia )

A parent company is a company that owns enough voting stock in another firm to control management and operations by influencing or electing its board of directors ( Wikipedia )

A subsidiary, subsidiary company, daughter company, or sister company is a company that is completely or partly owned by another corporation that owns more than half of the subsidiary's stock, and which normally acts as a holding corporation which at least partly or (when as) a parent corporation, wholly controls the activities and policies of the daughter corporation.

... The controlling entity is called its parent company, parent, or holding company. ( Wikipedia )

If shares == 100% wholly owned subsidiary
If shares > 50% subsidiary
If shares < 50% equity alliance

In many disciplines a greenfield is a project that lacks any constraints imposed by prior work. The analogy is to that of construction on greenfield land where there is no need to work within the constrains of existing buildings or infrastructure. ( Wikipedia )

A greenfield investment is the investment in a manufacturing, office, or other physical commerce-related structure or group of structures in an area where no previous facilities exist. ( Wikipedia )

Mergers and acquisitions (abbreviated M&A) are both an aspect of corporate strategy, corporate finance and management dealing with the buying, selling, dividing and combining of different companies and similar entities that can help an enterprise grow rapidly in its sector or location of origin, or a new field or new location, without creating a subsidiary, other child entity or using a joint venture. Mergers and acquisitions activity can be defined as a type of restructuring in that they result in some entity reorganization with the aim to provide growth or positive value. ( Wikipedia )

From a legal point of view, a merger is a legal consolidation of two companies into one entity, whereas an acquisition occurs when one company takes over another and completely establishes itself as the new owner (in which case the target company still exists as an independent legal entity controlled by the acquirer). ( Wikipedia on distinction between merger and acquisition from w:mergers and acquisitions )

Acquisitions take many forms

horizontal = the product lines and markets of the acquired and acquiring companies are similar
vertical = the acquired firm becomes supplier or customer of the acquiring firm
concentric = the acquired company has the same market but different technology, or the same technology but different markets
conglomerate = the acquired company is in a different industry from that of the acquiring company ( Heini )

A joint venture (JV) is a business agreement in which the parties agree to develop, for a finite time, a new entity and new assets by contributing equity. They exercise control over the enterprise and consequently share revenues, expenses and assets.

There are other types of companies such as JV limited by guarantee, joint ventures limited by guarantee with partners holding shares. ( Wikipedia )

Consolidation of an industry or sector occurs when widespread M&A activity concentrates the resources of many small companies into a few larger ones, such as occurred with the automotive industry between 1910 and 1940. ( Wikipedia on Mergers and acquisitions )

Theme 2 Export and import practicalities

A letter of credit is a document issued by a financial institution, or a similar party, assuring payment to a seller of goods and/or services provided certain documents have been presented to the bank. ( Wikipedia )

A Bill of Lading is a document generated by a shipping line or its agent, giving details of a shipment of merchandise. Alongside this principal purpose, the bill of lading also certifies that the goods have been shipped aboard a vessel (and in some cases certifies the condition of the goods at the point of loading), assigns title to the goods, and requires the carrier to release the merchandise to the holder of the title or a named party at the destination port. ( Wikipedia )

The Bill of Lading is a document of title of,goods, transferable by endorsement and is a receipt from shipping company regarding the number of packages with a particular weight and markings and a contract for the transportation of same to a port of destination mentioned therein. ( Wikipedia introduction )

A freight forwarder, forwarder, or forwarding agent, is a person or company that organizes shipments for individuals or corporations to get goods from the manufacturer or producer to a market, customer or final point of distribution. ( Wikipedia )

A contract of sale is a legal contract an exchange of goods, services or property to be exchanged from seller (or vendor) to buyer (or purchaser) for an agreed upon value in money (or money equivalent) paid or the promise to pay same. ( Wikipedia )